Analytical Chemistry :: essays research papers

Analytical Chemistry   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Analytical Chemistry is the branch of chemistry principally concerned with determining the chemical composition of materials, which may be solids, liquids, gases, pure elements, compounds, or complex mixtures. In addition, chemical analysis can characterize materials but determining their molecular structures and measuring such physical properties as pH, color, and solubility. Wet analysis involves the studying of substances that have been submerged in a solution and microanalysis uses substances in very small amounts.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Qualitative chemical analysis is used to detect and identify one or more constituents of a sample. This process involves a wide variety of tests. Ideally, the tests should be simple, direct, and easily performed with available instruments and chemicals. Test results may be an instrument reading, and observation of a physical property, or a chemical reaction. Reactions used in qualitative analysis may attempt to cause a characteristic color, odor, precipitate, or gas appear. Identification of an unknown substance is accomplished when a known one is found with identical properties. If none is found, the uknown substance must be a newly identified chemical. Tests should not use up excessive amounts of a material to be identified. Most chemical methods of qualitative analysis require a very small amount of the sample. Advance instrumental techniques often use less than one millionth of a gram. An example of this is mass spectrometry.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Quantitative chemical analysis is used to determine the amounts of constituents. Most work in analytical chemistry is quantitative. It is also the most difficult. In principle the analysis is simple. One measures the amount of sample. In practice, however, the analysis is often complicated by interferences among sample constituents and chemical separations are necessary to isolate tthe analyte or remove interfering constituents.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The choice of method depends on a number of factors: Speed, Cost, Accuracy, Convenience, Available equipment, Number of samples, Size of sample, Nature of sample, and Expected concentration. Because these factors are interrelated any final choice of analytical method involves compromises and it is impossible to specify a single best method to carry out a given analysis in all laboratories under all conditions. Since analyses are carried out under small amounts one must be careful when dealing with heterogeneous materials. Carefullly designed sampling techniques must be used to obtan representative samples.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Preparing solid samples for analysis usually involves grinding to reduce particle size and ensure homogeneity and drying. Solid samples are weighed using an accurate analytical balance. Liquid or gaseous samples are measureed by volume using accurately calibrated glassware or flowmeters. Many, but not all, analyses are carried out on solutions of the sample. Solid samples that are insoluble in water must be treated chemically to dissolve them without any

Case Brief Summary: Marbury V. Madison

Case Brief Summary: Marbury v. Madison Robert L. Broadwater PAD 525 Strayer University Dr. O’Neal July 09, 2012 Summary of Marbury v. Madison, 5 U. S. 137, 1 Cranch 137, 2 L. Ed. 60 (1803). Facts The incumbent president Federalist John Adams was defeat in the presidential election by Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson. The day before leaving office, President John Adams named forty-two justices of the peace and sixteen new circuit court justices for the District of Columbia. This was an attempt by the Federalists to take control of the federal judiciary before Thomas Jefferson took office.The commissions were signed by President Adams and sealed by acting Secretary of State John Marshall but they were not delivered before the expiration of Adams’s term as president. Thomas Jefferson refused to honor the commissions, claiming that they were invalid because they had not been delivered by the end of Adams’s term. William Marbury (Plaintiff) was an intended recip ient of an appointment as justice of the peace. Marbury applied directly to the Supreme Court of the United States for a writ of mandamus to compel Jefferson’s Secretary of State, James Madison (Defendant), to deliver the commissions.The Judiciary Act of 1789 had granted the Supreme Court original jurisdiction to issue writs of mandamus â€Å"†¦to any courts appointed, or persons holding office, under the authority of the United States. † Ironically, John Marshall later became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and author of the case’s opinion Issues 1. Does Marbury have a right to the commission? 2. Does the law grant Marbury a remedy? 3. Does the Supreme Court have the authority to review acts of Congress and determine whether they are unconstitutional and therefore void? 4.Can Congress expand the scope of the Supreme Court’s original jurisdiction beyond what is specified in Article III of the Constitution? 5. Does the Supreme Court have original j urisdiction to issue writs of mandamus? Holding and Rule (Marshall) 1. Yes. Marbury has a right to the commission. The order granting the commission takes effect when the Executive’s constitutional power of appointment has been exercised, and the power has been exercised when the last act required from the person possessing the power has been performed. The grant of the commission to Marbury became effective when signed by President Adams. . Yes. The law grants Marbury a remedy. The very essence of civil liberty certainly consists in the right of every individual to claim the protection of the laws whenever he receives an injury. One of the first duties of government is to afford that protection. Where a specific duty is assigned by law, and individual rights depend upon the performance of that duty, the individual who considers himself injured has a right to resort to the law for a remedy. The President, by signing the commission, appointed Marbury a justice of the peace in the District of Columbia.The seal of the United States, affixed thereto by the Secretary of State, is conclusive testimony of the verity of the signature, and of the completion of the appointment. Having this legal right to the office, he has a consequent right to the commission, a refusal to deliver which is a plain violation of that right for which the laws of the country afford him a remedy. 3. Yes. The Supreme Court has the authority to review acts of Congress and determine whether they are unconstitutional and therefore void. It is emphatically the duty of the Judicial Department to say what the law is.Those who apply the rule to particular cases must, of necessity, expound and interpret the rule. If two laws conflict with each other, the Court must decide on the operation of each. If courts are to regard the Constitution, and the Constitution is superior to any ordinary act of the legislature, the Constitution, and not such ordinary act, must govern the case to which they both apply. 4. No. Congress cannot expand the scope of the Supreme Court’s original jurisdiction beyond what is specified in Article III of the Constitution.The Constitution states that â€Å"the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction in all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party. In all other cases, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction. † If it had been intended to leave it in the discretion of the Legislature to apportion the judicial power between the Supreme and inferior courts according to the will of that body, this section is mere surplusage and is entirely without meaning.If Congress remains at liberty to give this court appellate jurisdiction where the Constitution has declared their jurisdiction shall be original, and original jurisdiction where the Constitution has declared it shall be appellate, the distribution of jurisdiction made in the Constitution, is form without substance. 5. No. The Supreme Court does not have original jurisdiction to issue writs of mandamus. To enable this court then to issue a mandamus, it must be shown to be an exercise of appellate jurisdiction, or to be necessary to enable them to exercise appellate jurisdiction.It is the essential criterion of appellate jurisdiction that it revises and corrects the proceedings in a cause already instituted, and does not create that case. Although, therefore, a mandamus may be directed to courts, yet to issue such a writ to an officer for the delivery of a paper is, in effect, the same as to sustain an original action for that paper, and is therefore a matter of original jurisdiction. Disposition Application for writ of mandamus denied. Marbury doesn’t get the commission.Evaluating the case â€Å"from the heart† Given how these facts were presented, I was not surprised with the result the court reach. I would agree with result and I feel that the court did a good job of reviewing these facts objectively and clearly. The conflict as I understand it was Marbury directly requesting the Supreme Court of the United States for a writ of mandamus to compel Secretary of State, James Madison to deliver the commissions as justice of the peace.However, there were questions that were considered in reviewing the subject. The court ruled to deny the application for writ of mandamus. The court was through in the result and reasoning in reaching this result. I would have ruled the same way if I had been a judge on this bench. I would have been objective in the review of the facts and the interpretation of the Constitution. It took two hours to read this case and take notes because of the legal terminology.

War On Drugs And Drug Trafficking - 960 Words

Organized crime is destructive to all countries it effects. In terms of the United States, it is plagued by human trafficking, drug trafficking, and weapons trafficking. One of the most harmful organized crimes is drug trafficking. What makes drug trafficking organized is the system of production to distribution. Drug trafficking organizations have a hierarchy of power from the kingpins to the couriers. Drug also has political influence they are able to bribe and blackmail politicians. Trafficking drugs is a multi-billion-dollar business, and the United States is one of its largest markets. Drug trafficking is defined as â€Å"the selling, transportation, and illegal import of unlawful controlled substances, such as marijuana, cocaine, heroin,†¦show more content†¦Some immigrants are even recruited, they do this because drug smugglers fund their way into the United States. So many people are desperate to get out of Mexico they risk their freedom. In recent news, their was a lso an American man who used a drone to smuggle drugs over from Mexico to California. He was carrying fifty-thousand dollars’ worth of cocaine. Although I do believe the border should be protected, I don’t agree building a wall will stop drug trafficking from Mexico. Before the transportation of narcotic there is an extensive production process. For example, cocaine production begins in the forest of Colombia. Colombia produces over half the world’s cocaine. They pay farmers to produce the cocoa leaf and transform it into a paste then a powder. Growing cocaine is just as risky as smuggling it. To combat the growth of the cocoa leaf, Colombian drug enforcement destroy the cocoa farms. They light farms on fire to deter famers from growing it. Law enforcement is not the only danger in drug trafficking. Drug cartels leaders are brutal, and enforce their rule through murder. For example, if people don’t want to participate in they just remove the people putting fear in the entire community. Organized crimes can fund each other. Drug trafficking increases weapons trafficking because weapons are needed to protect and enforce the drug trade. So as the need for drugs rises, the need for weapons will rise to creating a cycle ofShow MoreRelatedDrug Cartels : Mexico And The Brutal War Of Drug Trafficking1299 Words   |  6 PagesLeilany Emilio Mr.Odden Am/Lit December 18th, 2015 Drug Cartels Mexico is known for many things ranging from there beautiful coastlines to there ancient ruins and museums to the brutal war of drug trafficking. The drug war in Mexico is one of the biggest events in narcotics history. Drug trafficking was best known in Michoacan, Guanajuato and Guerrero but it has recently spread across all of Mexico. Michoacan was the first place where it erupted due to an organization of cartels known as LaRead MoreDrug Trafficking And Its Effects On The American Civil War1075 Words   |  5 PagesThe history of drug trafficking goes back to the nineteenth century when drugs like heroin, cocaine and morphine were introduced into society and exposed people to the dangers of abuse and addiction. The US began adopting restrictions on drug use, distribution and trafficking both locally and the international production of coca and opium crops, but it also elicited a massive kickback from drug cartels. In the 1850s, Chinese immigrants introduced opium smoking when they came to CaliforniaRead MoreEssay on Mexican/Latin American â€Å"War† on Drugs and Trafficking1122 Words   |  5 PagesThe international drug trade from Latin American states is having an impact on a global scale. The trafficking of drugs along with corruptness and murder is an international conflict that is being fought daily. There are many aspects of the drug war from Mexico and other Latin American states which have effects on United States policy as well as policies from other countries that participate in the global suppression of illegal drugs. It can be hard to differentiate between conflict and issue inRead MoreIllicit Drug Trafficking : An Organized Crime1481 Words   |  6 Pagesthis paper was to gather research of the topic called illicit drug trafficking. It explores 10 online research articles and websites that relate to illicit drug trafficking. These articles however, vary in their research about the topic. It begins by stating how illicit drug trafficking is considered an organized crime. Two of the main drugs that are trafficked are cocaine and heroin. As a result of drug trafficking, the war on drugs has been a problem for many decades in different countries. Read MoreDrug Trafficking877 Words   |  4 PagesDrug Trafficking in the United States Americans like to hide thoughts of the bad in society, one of these thoughts often hid or forget about is drug trafficking. Drug trafficking effects everyone from the one-percent down to the people of poverty. Billions of dollars of drugs are bought and sold, with billions more being spent to fight the trafficking of illicit drugs in the United State. With all the money spent to prevent drug trafficking Americans need to understand the harmful effects. Drug TraffickingRead MoreDrug Trafficking And Its Effects On America1600 Words   |  7 Pages In a country of struggling economies, many have viewed the drug trade as one South American’ s most successful businesses. Latin America s drug trafficking industry has been depicted in United States popular culture through motion pictures such as Scarface and Traffic. The purpose of my research is to take away society’s perception of what Hollywood has depicted drug trade to be and bring out what narcotics trafficking really is, as well as trying to coincide with the motivations of those peopleRead MoreWar On Drugs : A Comparative Analysis Of Human Rights Violation1339 Words   |  6 PagesDorce Richard Stahler-Sholk PLSC 367 07 April 2016 War on drugs or a war on people ? A comparative analysis of human rights violation in Latin America Ever since the War on Drugs campaign began there has been a more complex relationship between the U.S and Latin America. While the media portrays the U.S as providing aid to Latin America to combat such issues, the U.S is also seen as a victim in the war on drugs. Over the course of the war on drugs numerous human rights violations have been reportedRead MoreDrug Trafficking And The Criminal Justice System1272 Words   |  6 PagesThis paper explains the consequences that drug traffickers face in today’s criminal justice system; those consequences being classed as controlled substances, federal trafficking sentences, offender and offense characteristics, and the effects of illegal drug trade on society. When the federal government labels a substance as controlled, this means the possession and distribution of these substances are governed by law. These laws are formulated in accordance with 21 U.S. Code  § 811 – 814 - AuthorityRead Moreâ€Å"The War On Drugs Is A Big Fucking Lie†. In Recent History,1560 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"The war on drugs is a big fucking lie† In recent history, there has been much rhetoric surrounding the eradication of cross-border drug trafficking. The â€Å"war on drugs† was introduced in the 1970s by Nixon, who wanted to eliminate the drugs coming into the United States, since they were seen by him as a threat to our nation. Many laws have been enacted with the purpose keeping illicit drugs out of the United States, yet they do so through the use of nativist ideology, which upholds white supremacyRead MoreThe United Statesstrategy For Combating Drug Trafficking Across Their Shared Border1521 Words   |  7 PagesSince 2008, the United States and Mexico have worked collaboratively to combat drug trafficking across their shared border. The State Department’s current position on the situation is to to support continued cooperation with Mexico and collaborate on strategies to increase security and create policy measures that strengthen the rule of law. The State Department divides the United States’ strategy for combatting drug trafficking into four strategies: targeting cartels and their operations, aiding the Mexican

The Killer Whales Have Been Captured From The Wild And...

Since 1961 killer whales have been captured from the wild and taken into captivity. Orcas are exceedingly intelligent and affectionate. For instance, in their natural habitat orcas remain with their families their entire lives hunting and swimming hundreds of miles daily. Each pod of orcas has a different dialect and set of rituals while being immensely family-oriented. In captivity, these brilliant animals are forced into a concrete pool and coerced into performing circus acts. Once the pursue for killer whales began the smallest orcas were ripped away from their families by gruesome methods. These methods include pens, speedboats, nets, and explosives. The remaining family members would stay the entire time and once the huntsmen had the young orca loaded, they would follow the boat to the shore. The family would call out to the young orca through all of this, some of the orcas would not make the journey to shore. Therefore the huntsmen would cut the orcas open, fill them with rocks , tie weights to their fins and throw them back into the water. Ultimately, orcas do not belong in captivity, where they suffer tremendously from mental and physical health issues. For this reason, in this paper I will discuss the various ways orcas are maltreated. Orcas are genuinely kind, brilliant, and extremely family oriented. In captivity these natural instincts are demolished. Orcas in captivity are known to suffer from depression, aggressiveness, health issues, rape, stress, shorter lifeShow MoreRelatedKeeping Orca Whales in Captivity Should Be Banned Essay1336 Words   |  6 PagesFor many years, we’ve been going to such places like, SeaWorld, and Six Flags, to see vast animals, like Orcas, also known as the killer whale, which we wouldn’t normally see out in the wild. Orcas have been around for millions of years; it’s known to be one of the smartest mammals, closest to humans. Since of their friendliness, people have taken advantage of them. For the past sixty years people have brought these massive creatures into their aquariums to make profit out of it, but never thoughtRead MoreCaptivity of Killer Whales1541 Words   |  7 PagesPersuasive Speech Outline The Effects of Captivity on Killer Whales Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that holding killer whales in captivity is harmful to the mammal. Central Idea: Holding killer whales in captivity is a harmful problem to the mammal that requires action from both the government and the public. Introduction On February 24, 2010 couples and families were seated in the stadiums at SeaWorld in Orlando, Florida for one of the most popular shows at the theme parkRead MoreBlackfish as a Platform for Animal Rights Essay1438 Words   |  6 Pageswith Tilikum, the largest orca in captivity, Dawn was pulled into the water and drowned. It was a story that not only shocked the nation but left people wondering how something so horrible could happen. Gabriela Cowperthwaite‘s use of the accounts of retired SeaWorld trainers exposed the harsh reality of captured animals in her documentary Blackfish. In creating a piece focused on the life of one orca, Cowperthwaite has allowed viewers to look into the lives of captured animals and has shown the greaterRead MoreKiller Whales Kept in Captivity Essay1469 Words   |  6 Pagesseveral years, Americans have been visiting amusement parks, like SeaWorld and Six Flags, to observe large animals like orcas, also known as killer whales. These whales are qu ite difficult to view in the wild, but can now be seen for a simple fee. Orcas are known to be one of the smartest mammals. They are friendly, and this has caused people to take advantage of them. For the past sixty years, people have brought these massive creatures into their aquariums to make a profit from their exhibitions. OftenRead MoreKilling the Killer Whale Essay659 Words   |  3 PagesOrcas, also known as killer whales, are amazingly intelligent and are a top predator, much like humans. However, when the top predator of the ocean collides with the top predator of land, the situation can become fatal for both humans and the whales. Holding these incredibly massive marine animals in captivity is not only inhumane and detrimental to the whale’s health, but also a potentially fatal activity for humans to participate in. Orca trafficking is the equivalent of human trafficking: kidnappingRead MoreMarine Mammals in Captivity994 Words   |  4 PagesMarine Mammals in Captivity Imagine you are a young orca living out in the ocean, enjoying life, and having a great time. One day you get caught in a huge net, separated from your friends and family, and taken away from your home. You are captured in a concrete tank and forced to perform tricks for money for the rest of your life. Except you are not the one getting paid, but the people that captured you. There are so many anti-slavery organizations in the world today and we are all frightened byRead MoreThe Dangerous Nature Of Whales1724 Words   |  7 PagesWhales in Captivity Killer whales are beautiful creatures that roam the ocean with grace and authority; they are wild animals, meant to be free. As humans it is our job to protect them and revere them. We should be doing this in a way that is conscious of their assertive, wild nature, not in a way that tries to tame them and make them submit to us. Killer whales all over the world have been captured and put into theme parks and training centers for our entertainment, this selfish act is disrespectfulRead MoreSeaworld : Where Curiosity Kills1379 Words   |  6 PagesSeaworld: Where Curiosity Kills â€Å"The most important thing that we’ve learned from having whales in captivity is, ironically, that they should not be in captivity† -Gabriela Cowperthwaite, Blackfish movie director. Inside the walls of the worldwide known attractions, known as SeaWorld, are some memories humans will carry with them forever; some memories are filled with laughter and endless smiles while others will leave the world with heart-wrenching scares. Individuals suggest Seaworld isRead MoreWhale And Dolphin Conservation For Seaworld s Three Parks1235 Words   |  5 PagesSince 1961, 157 orcas, or killer whales, have been ripped from their homes and shoved into captivity. 127 of these orcas are now dead. With the number of captured orcas plus the number of those born into captivity, The W.D.C. (Whale and Dolphin Conservation) reports that, â€Å"At least 162 orcas have died in captivity, not including 30 miscarried or stillborn calves† ( â€Å"The Fate†1). Out of the 127 taken into captivity, 44 have died in SeaWorld. There are currently 58 orcas residing in 14 marine parksRead MoreKiller Whales : The Killer Whale Essay1647 Words   |  7 PagesThe largest member of t he dolphin family is the killer whale, the killer whale is often referred to as an orca. Killer whales are important to biology because they are essential to the oceanic ecosystem. They keep the food chain intake balanced by regulating certain marine mammals, and that helps other animals to not become overpopulated. Killer whales are also important because they help the economy due to whale watching. Killer whales help science by helping scientist understand echolocation which

Presidential Election Outcomes From American History

Presidential election outcomes can be determined by a plethora of factors which include the candidate’s own charisma and appeal, his rhetorics, his background (for instance, if he is related to a past president), the strength of his campaign, or his actual message. Though a president’s rhetorics and campaigning are crucial to a presidential election, in the end, as James Carville stated in Bill Clinton’s 1992 Presidential Campaign with his slogan â€Å"It’s the economy, stupid,† the economy is and always will be the biggest and deciding factor. In this essay, I will compare and contrast presidential election outcomes from American history, as well as touch upon the current outcome with present-day President Barack Obama and future predictions for the election of 2016. I will also present counterarguments it always â€Å"being the economy,† and show why the economy does indeed trump all in the end. Within the essay, I will explore the dimensio ns of economic performance and how they affect and impact presidential elections. As any economist or political scientist will point out, social, individual, and societal factors are important, but none of any of those factors has been more significant in helping or hurting a presidential candidate than has the United States (and US affected by global) economy. For all potential factors that could affect a presidential election outcome, we take in voter behaviors. Voters could have their own affiliations or preferences in relation to theShow MoreRelatedThe 2000 US Presidential Election928 Words   |  4 Pages2000 Presidential Election The United States Presidential elections are often events that captivate and interest a number of people around the world. The 2000 U.S. presidential election was particularly notable for more than one reason. Certainly, the fact that an election year in the year 2000, the marking of the next millennium and next century, is significant in of itself. In addition, there were a number of critical issues facing the candidates in this election, as with any election. The roleRead MoreThe Effect of Third Party Candidates in Presidential Elections1656 Words   |  7 PagesThe Effect of Third Party Candidates in Presidential Elections Although citizens of the United States have the opportunity to vote for many different offices at the national, state, and local levels, the election of the president of the United States every four years is the focal point of the American political process. The American political system has maintained a two- party system since its inception. Political scientists argue that a two-party system is the most stable and efficient meansRead More The Effect Of Third Party Candidates In Presidental Elections1626 Words   |  7 Pages The Effect of Third Party Candidates in Presidental Elections Although citizens of the United States have the opportunity to vote for many different offices at the national, state, and local levels, the election of the president of the United States every four years is the focal point of the American political process. The American political system has maintained a two- party system since its inception. Political scientists argue that a two-party system is the most stable and efficient means ofRead More Elimintating the Electoral College Essay examples1583 Words   |  7 Pagesare looking with this year’s election, the Electoral College is not benefiting American citizens. People fight both sides of the system, but the truth of the matter is that although the Electoral College has been in place for over 200 years, Americans are still not sure how it works or if it is the best method. Our country is supposed to be a symbol of democracy, but to this day, American elections are not truly democratic, for there are no direct Presidential elections. The Electoral College isRead MoreSignificance Of The Presidential Election Of 18921577 Words   |  7 Pagesinvestigation aims to evaluate the significance of third party candidates in the US presidential election of 1892. In 1912, Teddy Roosevelt famously split the vote of the Republican party as a third party candidate, and the investigation resolves to assess whether a third party candidate changed the outcome of the election in 1892. The investigation will focus mainly on the influence of one particular candidate from the Populist Party, James B. Weaver, as he won several electoral votes but will alsoRead MoreThe Electoral College And The United States Of America1065 Words   |  5 PagesThe 45th President if the United States of America will be sworn in on January 2017. So let’s examine the election process leading up to this momentous occasion. The president and vice president are not chosen by a nationwide popular vote of the American people. Rather, they are chosen by the slate of 538 Electors who have pledged their support for that candidate. The Electoral College is a process, not a place. This process is spelled out in the United States Constitution. Why Did the FoundingRead More The Presidential Election of 20001094 Words   |  5 PagesThe Presidential Election of 2000 Presidential election cycles are always three-ring circuses, and the 2000 election has become one of the biggest circuses ever. With a two-term president unable to seek re-election, the House of Representatives clearly up for grabs, and Democrats counting on major Senate gains -- even hoping to win control -- there is a lot at stake in this years elections. Republicans optimism is based on their view that they will take back the White House after an eight-yearRead MoreWhat Was Learned From the 2000 Presidential Election?1494 Words   |  6 PagesPresident Election isn’t considered to be the typical election that occurs every four years in our society. I am opening up the discussion of this important topic in American presidential history by first sharing a fact that not many people may know: there have been three previous presidential elections in which one candidate won the popular vote but not the electoral vote and lost the election. The 2000 Presidential Election was cons idered to be one of the most highly contested elections in presidentialRead MoreThe Electoral College Is A System886 Words   |  4 Pagesdemocracy; the founding fathers were afraid of the population having power to directly elect the president. (Miller) They also feared a tyrant would manipulate the American people and come into power through election. Thus the Electoral College was created to insure the safety of the presidency. The Electoral College is a compromise from the Constitutional Convention. Some of the framers favored direct democracy, while others wanted the House of Representatives to choose the president. (Schulman) TheRead MoreEssay about The Influence Of Saturday Night Live On The 2008 Election1477 Words   |  6 PagesThe Influence of Saturday Night Live On August 29th, 2008 Senator John McCain announced his decision of electing Sarah Palin as his Vice Presidential Candidate. This declaration provoked controversy amongst many of the United States citizens and while the majority of the people supported McCain, there were still a select few of both the republican and democratic parties that were bewildered by his decision. They view Sarah Palin as ignorant and someone who could not play any significant part in

”The Kite Runner” by Khaled Hosseini Chapter 7 Essay Sample free essay sample

In chapter seven of The Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini. the reader is faced with a important minute in the novel. This chapter presents an of import scene. where Hassan chooses to be raped by Assef instead than passing him Amir’s kite. Hosseini brings the reader a critical minute in chapter seven when Hassan becomes Amir’s forfeit for felicity. and all facets of the boys’ childhoods change everlastingly. Chapter seven presents a important promotion in the secret plan. a development of the chief characters. and the visual aspect of several of import symbols used in the narrative. As indicated by the rubric. Kites play a really symbolic function in the novel and are used by Hosseini as a tool to research a assortment of issues. The kite itself is used by the author in chapter 7 as a ocular word picture of the religious journey that Amir is traveling to take in order to happen salvation within himself. We will write a custom essay sample on †The Kite Runner† by Khaled Hosseini Chapter 7 Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Besides. the kite competition reinforces an issue that is prevailing throughout the novel- which is the intervention of Hazaras in Afghanistan during the clip the novel is set and besides the suggestion that Amir and Hassan can neer be true friends because of their differing places is society. Alternatively of holding an equal relationship. due to the favoritism that existed in Afghanistan against the Hazaras. Amir and Hassan’s friendly relationship seems to hold strong facets of a servant-master relationship. This is proven by the fact that Amir flies the kite in the competition every twelvemonth and Hassan acts as his helper. When Hassan celebrates Amir’s triumph. ‘You won Amir Agha’ . Amir tries to conceal from the obvious fact that he is the superior individual in their relationship. ‘We won! We won! ’ By portraying their relationship in this manner. Hosseini is taking to make a mixture of emotions within readers as they try and contemplate the grounds for Amir’s determination subsequently in the chapter. The friendly relationship of Amir and Hassan is a cardinal subject in â€Å"The Kite Runner† and Hosseini uses it in chapter 7 to demo how the determinations we make can hold an impact on the remainder of our lives . Hosseini shows how close the two male childs are in order to beef up the apprehension in readers of the bond they portion with each other. therefore doing the sense of treachery even stronger later in the chapter. ‘Hassan ever understood about me’ portrays their relationship as about brother-like and this is used to consequence by Hosseini. The back street in which Hassan gets raped is estranged and soiled â€Å"piles of bit and rubble† . perchance being representational of the act that Assef performs as being dirty and dishonorable. Amir is shown depicting the back street in monolithic item as Hassan is being raped â€Å"worn bike tyres. bottles with bare-assed labels. ripped up magazines. xanthous newspapers† . as if Amir wants to take his head of what is go oning to Hassan by utilizing lists. Amir’s dream could besides stand for his guilty scruples. Hosseini utilizing personification to reflect on the dream-like province Hassan is sing â€Å"the air current bawling in my ears† and besides forshadows the graphic imagination of when Hassans underside starts shed blooding in the snow â€Å"tiny beads that fell from between his legs and stained the snow black† into â€Å"blood dripping. staining the snow† ruddy and white being contrastive colorss stand foring decease. Amir besides goes into a Eden type phantasy where he is â€Å"standing in a field of apple green grass† and this could stand for Amir get awaying from his guilt of non stepping in. Amir’s description of the streets are as â€Å"eight-foot walls† possibly picturing Amir’s entrapment as he is non close to his male parent Baba. and urgently wants to be or on the other manus his isolation as his best friend is an Hazara and Amir had societal differences to him. The streets of Wazir Akbar Khan were numbered and set at right angles to each other like a grid furthers Amir’s entrapment. as Amir is really inventive such as when he wrote and read Hassan his narrative he made up. so this mathematic like construction could stand for the unfamiliarity Amir feels from the street and foreshadows Hassan’s colza.

The Effect of Miscommunication in an Orgnization Essay Example

The Effect of Miscommunication in an Orgnization Essay Reasons of miscommunication leading to lesser productivity in an organization Nguyen Nam Khanh B0902385 Abstract Communication is a process beginning with a sender who encodes the message and passes it through some channel to the receiver who decodes the message. Communication is fruitful if and only if the receiver interprets the messages sent by the sender with same meaning. If any kind of disturbance blocks any step of communication, the message will be destroyed. Communication is more important in an organization. Cause miscommunication would lead to several problems to the organization especially, productivity. This paper would find out what reasons of miscommunication on an organization leading to ineffective productivity. Keyword: Communication, organization, productivity. 1. Introduction Communication is always a very important role in personal life. In fact, it is said to be the backbone of living. The meanings of communication may be very different. Communication consists of all the processes by which information is transmitted and received. The subject matter may include facts, intentions, attitudes etc. and the chief purpose of communication is to make the receiver to understand what is in the mind of the sender. Communication is very crucial and unavoidable since we have intentions, which we want to pass across to another person, group or even to the external world. Communication provide evidence that people is living. We will write a custom essay sample on The Effect of Miscommunication in an Orgnization specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Effect of Miscommunication in an Orgnization specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Effect of Miscommunication in an Orgnization specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Because one must like to communicate with people around him or her to share experience, ideas and feelings. In an organization, communication is inevitable and indispensable and can have huge impacts on how the organization works as a whole. Communication in an organization is about sharing ideas, information, opinions, and plans from person to person, department to department and inside the organization to external world. As far as we know, an effective communicate organization can get many benefits, uch as: increasing productivity, improve efficiency, cut costs, improve morale, and decrease turnover, etc. Besides that, miscommunication or ineffective communication usually has negative effects. For examples: souring relations, leading to poor performances and felt on the productivity, and ultimately the outcome. Therefore, to get those benefits and avoid further negative effects, we need to find out why miscommunication takes place. 2. Interpersonal communication process According t o Robert N. Lussier (Springfield College), communication is a process in which consist of a sender who encodes a message and transmits it through a channel to a receiver who decodes it and may give feedback. The communication process consists of four steps. Step 1: The sender encodes the message and selects transmission channel Step 2: The sender transmits the message through a channel Step 3: The receiver decodes the message and decides if feedback is need Step 4: Feedback 3. Organization communication In order to know more what reasons lead to miscommunication in workplace, we must know more about organization communicate so that we can answer the question. An organization refer to when people come together to work in pursuit of common goals, they establish a hierarchy of authority in other to achieve the common goals, they also in the process divide tasks according to members area of specialization so that the human resources within the organization can be properly harnessed to achieve the set objectives. According to Robert N. Lussier (Springfield College), communication in an organization generally is the compounded interpersonal communication process across and organization. Therefore, any of communication barriers between individual personal in an organization would affect the performance of the organization. 4. Interpersonal communication barrier There are many barriers could affect the interpersonal communication process, which may lead to miscommunication, which leading to limited, ineffective productivity in an organization. Each different stage of the communication process could have different barriers. For example, in the first stage of the process, which the sender encodes and selects a channel to transmit the message, there are barriers such as perception, information overload or channel selection barrier. Perception is generally how each individual interprets the world around him. All generally want to receive messages, which are significant to them, any message that is against their values is not accepted. Information overloads which happen when peoples are surrounded with a pool of information and cannot control this information flow else, too much information is as bad as too little because it reduces the audiences ability to concentrate on the most important part of the message, the information is likely to be misinterpreted or forgotten or overlooked. As a result, communication is less effective. Another barrier involves while the sender selecting a channel to communicate. Using an inappropriate channel can result in missed communication. Beside, communication barrier can also take place in other stage of communication process. Such as noise barrier in stage 2, noise interferes with message transmission which is anything distracting the receiver and causing message understanding errors. In stage 3 of communication process, barriers such as trust and credibility, not-listening barrier and emotional, may occur. People who not trustworthy will find difficult to communicate. Not listening usually involved when people is not paying attention, they just hear but not listening. In addition, emotional barriers happen if the receiver does not have mood to be objective and to listen. Furthermore, the last stage may have the filtering communication barrier, which people likely to alternating or distorting information to project a more favorable image. Beside the barriers that occur during the communication barrier, there are also many factors cause barrier. For example, different in gender: the different between men and women conversation style becomes a barrier, different in cross-cultural communication: differences in culture can cause barrier to communication. 5. Non-cooperation, no participation in workplace If there is not a cohesive relationship among employees and managements, some of them will not readily to cooperate. Some employees have higher qualification than others do, so they think they are better than others are. It leads to a distance among employees. That distance would prevent a clear Non-participation is also an factor leading to miscommunication. Participation in workplace or usually in a team working on a project often leads to a better understanding of potential problems because ideas are shared more openly between members of an organization. In a study of 493 employees (Kivimaki et al. , 2000), the result show that participative communication was the strongest indicator of innovation effectiveness and patents produced. Cooperation, participation, open discussion encourage member of an organization or a project team to have a desire of seeking information needed to understand contrary views, so that better knowledge, expertise, and problem solving can result. Cooperation and participation help building trust among employees in an organization or among team members of a project team. Therefore, they can establish common goals, and resolving project specifications. It is best employed in the project teams formative phases, so that its positive effects on team building may be used to leverage productivity and innovation ( Smith, 2001). 6. Miscommunications and misunderstandings in the workplace due to generation gaps Peoples attitudes are influenced by the familial and cultural experiences of their childhood and those values are brought into the workplace. In an organization, there are usually have multiple generation participating. Each generation have different characteristic. According to Mark Hirschfeld, principal in the human capital consulting group at SilverStone Group in Omaha, Neb The way we grew up earns us the right to see the world the way we see it. † Furthermore, according to Amy Hirsh Robinson, principal at workforce consulting firm Interchange Group in Los Angeles: Millennials think Generation X managers are jaded, bitter, abrasive, not interested in them, hoard their knowledge, and dont delegate†, and â€Å"Generation Xers think Millennials are too needy for attention and are emanding and overly confident, says Sylvia Ann Hewlett, an economist and founding president of the Center for Work-Life Policy, a nonprofit think tank in New York City. Members of Generation X also say, Millennials dont have a good work ethic, job-hop and live off their parents. It may not be true, but thats the stereotype. Therefore, the misunderstanding between generations in workplace is unavoidable, thus l eading to miscommunication. To overcome the generation gaps in an organization, all employees of the organization should spend more time to hang out, participate and get to know others. Therefore, employees in different generations can found their similarities in others, thus know other better, which reduce chance of miscommunication. 7. Organization structure Organizational structure is seen as the hierarchy through which a group, business or organization of people collaborate to achieve a set of objectives and common goals. The ways these hierarchical structures interact with each other affects the measurement of effectiveness in that organization. All organization, depend on its own side would have different communication technique, and different communication network. In large organizations where flow of information is downward, feedback is not always guaranteed. Organizations with a flat structure usually tend to have an intricately knitted communication network. Tall organizations generally have too many vertical communication links; as a result, messages become distorted as they move through various organization levels. 8. Different position of employees in an organization structure. People in different position of an organization hierarchy communicate with others, there is a possibility of miscommunication. Generally, employees at lower position would like to take about anything that their boss might interest in. They also very cautious when sending message to their boss. Member in different position in an organization have different chance to be criticized. Usually only lower position employees are given criticized from managers. Similarly, people of higher status may twist messages by refusing to discuss anything that would tend to weaken their authority in the organization such as allow employees to criticized them. In other words, they may want to maintain the significance of their status. This tendency is beneficial neither for the employees nor for the organization. Limiting oneself to a particular department or being responsible for a particular task can narrow ones point of view so that it differs from the attitudes, values, and expectations of people who belong to other departments or who are responsible for other tasks. Various studies considered the role of communication in superior-subordinate relationships (Hatfield and Huseman, 1982; Richmond and Roach, 1992; and Waldron, 1991). Eisenberg, Monge, and Farace (1984) found that greater levels of agreement on rules of initiation and termination for communication between supervisors or subordinates led higher evaluations of each other. Similarly, according to Wexley, Alexander, Greenawalt, and Couch (1980), managers who were more cognizant of subordinates work attitudes tended to give them more evaluations that are positive. Also, greater congruence by subordinates toward attitudes of managers led to increased satisfaction with supervision administered by them. 9. Message transmission channel To communicate in workplace, there are many variety channels. However, each of the channels to transmit the message in an organization has different weakness. Face-to-face communication usually is the most suitable standard because it can provides immediate feedback, transmits information from both verbal and non-verbal cues, and conveys the emotion behind the message. Although, other channels such as telephone or other interactive electronic media can provide immediate feedback even people in a long distance. However, it is lack of they do not provide visual non-verbal cues, such as facial expressions, eye contact, and body movements. Through memos, letters, and reports, written communication can be personalized, but immediate feedback is lost along with the visual and vocal non-verbal cues that show the meaning of the message. According to a study by using questionnaire that is give to the Fortune 200 companies, show that 66% reported miscommunication most often occurred in oral/spoken communication, followed by 40% responses indicating written communication, and 10% individuals noting nonverbal body communication. When asked specifically, 47% of respondents identified e-mail as the media responsible for the most miscommunication. 0. Culture difference Miscommunication because of culture difference usually happens in a multi-national organization or global virtual team working on a project, which members are, located in different countries face cultural differences that can affect the overall success of the groups performance. It includes language barrier and different culture understanding. According to (Smith, 2001) National differences tend to align themselves with the intrinsic cultural influences of the nationalities of the persons within the group. Most nations prescribe either to an individualism or collectivism identity. By cultural differences between geographic regions, team members cannot communicate through face-to-face. Therefore, important tonal and body language cues were missing. For example, some body language sign would have different meanings in different country or culture. For that reason, miscommunication is sometimes unavoidable. It has a negative effect on relationships and communication between team members. Furthermore, no matter in what culture we find ourselves communicating, the task is to grasp, through noticeable and invisible clues, others intentions behind their encoded signs. All cultures have classification systems of value, and competent management communicators need to be sensitive to the distinctive gradations of other’s classification systems. As Van Gennep has pointed out, â€Å"every ordered society necessarily classes not only its human members, but also the objects and creatures of nature, sometimes according to their external form, sometimes according to their dominant psychic characteristics, sometimes according to their utility as food, in agriculture or in industry, or for the producer or consumer. Nothing entitles us to regard any one system of classification, say the zoological system of totemism, the cosmographic system, or the occupational system (castes) as prior to the others. † (qtd. in L_vi-Strauss 162) 11. Lack of trust Trust is the belief that somebody/something is good, sincere, honest, and will not try to harm or trick you. Lacking of trust in communication among employees would lead to miscommunication in an organization. Depend on the different kind of an organization; there are different ways, different channels to employees to communicate. Therefore, there are many different way to building trust among employees. In each transmission channels of communication, there are different advantages and disadvantage. According to The Media Richness theory by Daft et al. (1987) suggests that computer-based communication media may eliminate the type of communication cues that persons use to express trust, warmth, politeness, and other interpersonal affections. So that employees are difficult to building trust with other. In other hand, according to the SIDE theory discussed by Walther (1997) contends that electronic media communication is no different than face-to-face interaction in terms of social information exchange. Furthermore, we can see that in an organization, if the management do not trust the employees, then they do not believe all of the thing that employees report. So the manager will have to double check all the work, which leading to time consuming. In the other hand, if employees lack trust in manager, they will start questioning all of the decision or opinions of the manager. These lead to communication breakdown and ineffective in productivity of the organization. 12. Negative effect of miscommunication to productivity As communication is defined as a process of transmitting, sharing information, ideas, knowledge, and understanding among peoples. So, miscommunication means that misunderstanding and people cannot achieving common goal. The problems caused by miscommunication can be critical even for the peace of the World. According to Huffington Post in 2010, even NATO in Afghanistan has been blamed miscommunication in the fire incident. In organizations, managerial communication with its methods and levels of communication are in a key role achieve people act and perform as the organization needs. Miscommunication can take place in everyday life and easily corrected by a new communication. But the bigger the communicated issue is, and the more it cause needs of change in people’s behavior, the more important is to avoid miscommunication. The time used to correct all serious misunderstanding can be vital for the time reaching the assigned target. We can have a look back into the case of Toyota. Toyota has issued some recalls ranging from floor mats to faulty accelerator pedals to rusted out spare-tire carriers. According to their former Chief American Spokesman Jim Olson, the core of the issue was miscommunication. Furthermore, Jim Olson said: â€Å"there was a clear division between Toyotas decision making and execution teams. † Jim argues that this slowed the company down and prevented communication and planning within Toyota. The results were obviously not only devastating to the family members of those hurt or killed in accidents caused by these problems but also devastating effect on the future business and reputation of Toyota. Miscommunication can take place at anytime, anywhere, in any organization, from business company to a public hospital or from a factory to the government. For example, in a hospital doctor team is diagnosing for a patient, if miscommunication occurs among the doctor team, it not only added stress and confusion, on top of an already delicate situation. One Doctor would give his diagnosis and then the other Doctor would give a completely opposite diagnosis. It was as if the two doctors did not come together to discuss and compare notes. This miscommunication led to confusion and eventually if the patient being in critical condition, resulted would be far more worse. Good communication is the backbone of any organization. As an organization grows bigger and becomes more complex, there is more opportunity for miscommunication to spread within. It can have a damaging effect on not only an organization but also external world. So we all know that miscommunication in an organization not only affect the productivity of the organization or time-consuming to correct the failure but also have vital effect on outside the organization. 3. How to reduce negative effects of miscommunication There are many disadvantage of miscommunication, but there are also many way to prevent miscommunication in an organization. Most of miscommunication in organization comes from personal miscommunication among members of the organization. In order to reduce personal miscommunications, missed expectations, frustration, confusion, disappointment , anger, and many other emotions by doing some of the following things in mind when we are attempting to communicate. Firstly, if you want to have an easy, clear, ommunication, you should choose your words carefully; try to use not complicated words or those words that have so many different meanings. Secondly, make certain your body language and facial expressions are matching with your message. If a manager tells his/her team they did a good job and he/her rolls the eyes as saying it, they are going to believe that facial expression rather than the words. They will believe what they see every time over what they hear. Furthermore, people in an organization should give trust to others. Trust is the foundation stone when dealing with people. When trust exists in an organization or in a relationship, almost everything else is easier and more comfortable to achieve. Try to keep promises. If you cannot keep one, explain what is happening in the situation without delay. Feedback is communication to a person regarding the effect their behavior is having on others. You need to find a way to share concerns without making the person you are talking to feel threatened. Finally, if miscommunication occurs, try to solve the problem as soon as possible to prevent further damages. 14. Conclusion Communication is an important role in any organization. And communication process is a process, in which the message is encoded by sender then sent through many different channel to receiver. However, during all of stages of communication process, many factors can occur and affect to the message, which lead to miscommunication. As far as we know, most of reasons of miscommunication in an organization leading to communication breakdown and further is ineffective productivity. Most of the reasons leading to miscommunication in an organization are from personal miscommunication among employees or member of the organization. It could be miscommunication because of perception or information overload, or because of noise or the way people chosen to communicate, or different in culture or, lacking of trust between employers or employees and management, which lead to employees not willing to cooperate or participate. Furthermore, we know that an organization structure is a reason leading to miscommunication. Different organization structure has different weakness, such as a tall organization generally have too many vertical communication links, which the message would be modified, change, or lost during the process. Communication has a vital affect to the organization especially the organization productivity. If an organization have a good communication process among employees, the process of sharing ideas, information, knowledge and opinions is faster, more accurate, It not only lead to effective productivity, saving more time and resource of the organization but also reduce the chance of vital negative activities. However, if an organization have problems in communication process among people, which lead to miscommunication and ineffective productivity or more critical failure. The negative effects of miscommunication not only have an effect on an organization itself but also the outside world such as customers or other organization. Finally, miscommunication in an organization is unavoidable, but the organization must know what to do to reduce the chance of miscommunication as well as it negative effects. Reference Miscommunication in workplace, Sources, Prevention, Response- David Snowball December 1, 2011 How to avoid miscommunication- Rex C. Houze, Founder ; President Improving Performance ; Results Communication, and miscommunication in corporate America: evidence from fortune 200 firms by Nitham M. Hindi, Donald S. Miller, Stephen E. Catt The Effects of Miscommunication and Inaccurate Reporting On an Organization. Author: julia_877  Ã‚  03 February 2012 How Does Organizational Structure Affect Performance Measurement? By JOHN S, eHow Contributor How to Prevent Most Cross Cultural Miscommunication by Examining Your Own English Communication by Cindy King Explore effectiveness of team communication: Balancing synchronous and asynchronous communication in design team. By Den Otter, Ad; Emmitt, Stephan. Engineering, Constructions, Architecture management 14. 5 (2007) page 408-419 Essay: Miscommunication in Organizations. ttp://www. essayxperts. com/essay-miscommunication-in-organizations/ Exploring the communication breakdown in global virtual teams Tugrul U. Daim, Anita Ha,Shawn Reutimanc, Brennan Hughes, Ujjal Pathak, Wayne Bynum, Ashok Bhatla. Received 14 July 2010. Revised 19 April 2011. Accepted 21 June 2011. Available online 3 August 2011. Review: A cognitive-affective mode l of organizational communication for designing IT by Teeni, Dov. MIS Quarterly25. 2 (Jun 2001): 251-312. Female and Male Managers’ and Professionals’ Criticism Giving. Differences in Language Use and Effects by Anthony Mulac1, David R. Seibold2 and Jennifer Lee Farris. The impact of transactive memory systems on IS development teams coordination, communication, and performance by Jack Shih-Chieh Hsu, Sheng-Pao Shih, Jerry C. Chiang, Julie Yu-Chih Liu Developing international management communication competence | by Chapel, W B Journal of Business and Technical Communication, ISSN 1050-6519, 07/1997, Volume 11, Issue 3, pp. 281 296 | Risk Mitigation in Virtual Organizations | by Grabowski, Martha and Roberts, Karlene H Organization Science, ISSN 1047-7039, 11/1999, Volume 10, Issue 6, pp. 04 721 Exploring the communication breakdown in global virtual teams | by Daim, Tugrul U; Ha, Anita; Reutiman, Shawn; Hughes, Brennan; Pathak, Ujjal; Bynum,Multicultural organizations: Common language and group cohesivenessJakob Lauring Aarhus School of Business, University of Aarhus, Denmark and Jan Selmer Aarhus School of Business, University of Aarhus, Denmarkhttp://blog. peoplemetrics. com/combating-miscommunication-in-the-wo rkplace/Causes of Miscommunication-Dr. PaulsenCommunication Barriers Reasons for Communication Breakdown from http://www. managementstudyguide. com/communication_barriers. htm | | The Effect of Miscommunication in an Orgnization Essay Example The Effect of Miscommunication in an Orgnization Paper Reasons of miscommunication leading to lesser productivity in an organization Nguyen Nam Khanh B0902385 Abstract Communication is a process beginning with a sender who encodes the message and passes it through some channel to the receiver who decodes the message. Communication is fruitful if and only if the receiver interprets the messages sent by the sender with same meaning. If any kind of disturbance blocks any step of communication, the message will be destroyed. Communication is more important in an organization. Cause miscommunication would lead to several problems to the organization especially, productivity. This paper would find out what reasons of miscommunication on an organization leading to ineffective productivity. Keyword: Communication, organization, productivity. 1. Introduction Communication is always a very important role in personal life. In fact, it is said to be the backbone of living. The meanings of communication may be very different. Communication consists of all the processes by which information is transmitted and received. The subject matter may include facts, intentions, attitudes etc. and the chief purpose of communication is to make the receiver to understand what is in the mind of the sender. Communication is very crucial and unavoidable since we have intentions, which we want to pass across to another person, group or even to the external world. Communication provide evidence that people is living. We will write a custom essay sample on The Effect of Miscommunication in an Orgnization specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Effect of Miscommunication in an Orgnization specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Effect of Miscommunication in an Orgnization specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Because one must like to communicate with people around him or her to share experience, ideas and feelings. In an organization, communication is inevitable and indispensable and can have huge impacts on how the organization works as a whole. Communication in an organization is about sharing ideas, information, opinions, and plans from person to person, department to department and inside the organization to external world. As far as we know, an effective communicate organization can get many benefits, uch as: increasing productivity, improve efficiency, cut costs, improve morale, and decrease turnover, etc. Besides that, miscommunication or ineffective communication usually has negative effects. For examples: souring relations, leading to poor performances and felt on the productivity, and ultimately the outcome. Therefore, to get those benefits and avoid further negative effects, we need to find out why miscommunication takes place. 2. Interpersonal communication process According t o Robert N. Lussier (Springfield College), communication is a process in which consist of a sender who encodes a message and transmits it through a channel to a receiver who decodes it and may give feedback. The communication process consists of four steps. Step 1: The sender encodes the message and selects transmission channel Step 2: The sender transmits the message through a channel Step 3: The receiver decodes the message and decides if feedback is need Step 4: Feedback 3. Organization communication In order to know more what reasons lead to miscommunication in workplace, we must know more about organization communicate so that we can answer the question. An organization refer to when people come together to work in pursuit of common goals, they establish a hierarchy of authority in other to achieve the common goals, they also in the process divide tasks according to members area of specialization so that the human resources within the organization can be properly harnessed to achieve the set objectives. According to Robert N. Lussier (Springfield College), communication in an organization generally is the compounded interpersonal communication process across and organization. Therefore, any of communication barriers between individual personal in an organization would affect the performance of the organization. 4. Interpersonal communication barrier There are many barriers could affect the interpersonal communication process, which may lead to miscommunication, which leading to limited, ineffective productivity in an organization. Each different stage of the communication process could have different barriers. For example, in the first stage of the process, which the sender encodes and selects a channel to transmit the message, there are barriers such as perception, information overload or channel selection barrier. Perception is generally how each individual interprets the world around him. All generally want to receive messages, which are significant to them, any message that is against their values is not accepted. Information overloads which happen when peoples are surrounded with a pool of information and cannot control this information flow else, too much information is as bad as too little because it reduces the audiences ability to concentrate on the most important part of the message, the information is likely to be misinterpreted or forgotten or overlooked. As a result, communication is less effective. Another barrier involves while the sender selecting a channel to communicate. Using an inappropriate channel can result in missed communication. Beside, communication barrier can also take place in other stage of communication process. Such as noise barrier in stage 2, noise interferes with message transmission which is anything distracting the receiver and causing message understanding errors. In stage 3 of communication process, barriers such as trust and credibility, not-listening barrier and emotional, may occur. People who not trustworthy will find difficult to communicate. Not listening usually involved when people is not paying attention, they just hear but not listening. In addition, emotional barriers happen if the receiver does not have mood to be objective and to listen. Furthermore, the last stage may have the filtering communication barrier, which people likely to alternating or distorting information to project a more favorable image. Beside the barriers that occur during the communication barrier, there are also many factors cause barrier. For example, different in gender: the different between men and women conversation style becomes a barrier, different in cross-cultural communication: differences in culture can cause barrier to communication. 5. Non-cooperation, no participation in workplace If there is not a cohesive relationship among employees and managements, some of them will not readily to cooperate. Some employees have higher qualification than others do, so they think they are better than others are. It leads to a distance among employees. That distance would prevent a clear Non-participation is also an factor leading to miscommunication. Participation in workplace or usually in a team working on a project often leads to a better understanding of potential problems because ideas are shared more openly between members of an organization. In a study of 493 employees (Kivimaki et al. , 2000), the result show that participative communication was the strongest indicator of innovation effectiveness and patents produced. Cooperation, participation, open discussion encourage member of an organization or a project team to have a desire of seeking information needed to understand contrary views, so that better knowledge, expertise, and problem solving can result. Cooperation and participation help building trust among employees in an organization or among team members of a project team. Therefore, they can establish common goals, and resolving project specifications. It is best employed in the project teams formative phases, so that its positive effects on team building may be used to leverage productivity and innovation ( Smith, 2001). 6. Miscommunications and misunderstandings in the workplace due to generation gaps Peoples attitudes are influenced by the familial and cultural experiences of their childhood and those values are brought into the workplace. In an organization, there are usually have multiple generation participating. Each generation have different characteristic. According to Mark Hirschfeld, principal in the human capital consulting group at SilverStone Group in Omaha, Neb The way we grew up earns us the right to see the world the way we see it. † Furthermore, according to Amy Hirsh Robinson, principal at workforce consulting firm Interchange Group in Los Angeles: Millennials think Generation X managers are jaded, bitter, abrasive, not interested in them, hoard their knowledge, and dont delegate†, and â€Å"Generation Xers think Millennials are too needy for attention and are emanding and overly confident, says Sylvia Ann Hewlett, an economist and founding president of the Center for Work-Life Policy, a nonprofit think tank in New York City. Members of Generation X also say, Millennials dont have a good work ethic, job-hop and live off their parents. It may not be true, but thats the stereotype. Therefore, the misunderstanding between generations in workplace is unavoidable, thus l eading to miscommunication. To overcome the generation gaps in an organization, all employees of the organization should spend more time to hang out, participate and get to know others. Therefore, employees in different generations can found their similarities in others, thus know other better, which reduce chance of miscommunication. 7. Organization structure Organizational structure is seen as the hierarchy through which a group, business or organization of people collaborate to achieve a set of objectives and common goals. The ways these hierarchical structures interact with each other affects the measurement of effectiveness in that organization. All organization, depend on its own side would have different communication technique, and different communication network. In large organizations where flow of information is downward, feedback is not always guaranteed. Organizations with a flat structure usually tend to have an intricately knitted communication network. Tall organizations generally have too many vertical communication links; as a result, messages become distorted as they move through various organization levels. 8. Different position of employees in an organization structure. People in different position of an organization hierarchy communicate with others, there is a possibility of miscommunication. Generally, employees at lower position would like to take about anything that their boss might interest in. They also very cautious when sending message to their boss. Member in different position in an organization have different chance to be criticized. Usually only lower position employees are given criticized from managers. Similarly, people of higher status may twist messages by refusing to discuss anything that would tend to weaken their authority in the organization such as allow employees to criticized them. In other words, they may want to maintain the significance of their status. This tendency is beneficial neither for the employees nor for the organization. Limiting oneself to a particular department or being responsible for a particular task can narrow ones point of view so that it differs from the attitudes, values, and expectations of people who belong to other departments or who are responsible for other tasks. Various studies considered the role of communication in superior-subordinate relationships (Hatfield and Huseman, 1982; Richmond and Roach, 1992; and Waldron, 1991). Eisenberg, Monge, and Farace (1984) found that greater levels of agreement on rules of initiation and termination for communication between supervisors or subordinates led higher evaluations of each other. Similarly, according to Wexley, Alexander, Greenawalt, and Couch (1980), managers who were more cognizant of subordinates work attitudes tended to give them more evaluations that are positive. Also, greater congruence by subordinates toward attitudes of managers led to increased satisfaction with supervision administered by them. 9. Message transmission channel To communicate in workplace, there are many variety channels. However, each of the channels to transmit the message in an organization has different weakness. Face-to-face communication usually is the most suitable standard because it can provides immediate feedback, transmits information from both verbal and non-verbal cues, and conveys the emotion behind the message. Although, other channels such as telephone or other interactive electronic media can provide immediate feedback even people in a long distance. However, it is lack of they do not provide visual non-verbal cues, such as facial expressions, eye contact, and body movements. Through memos, letters, and reports, written communication can be personalized, but immediate feedback is lost along with the visual and vocal non-verbal cues that show the meaning of the message. According to a study by using questionnaire that is give to the Fortune 200 companies, show that 66% reported miscommunication most often occurred in oral/spoken communication, followed by 40% responses indicating written communication, and 10% individuals noting nonverbal body communication. When asked specifically, 47% of respondents identified e-mail as the media responsible for the most miscommunication. 0. Culture difference Miscommunication because of culture difference usually happens in a multi-national organization or global virtual team working on a project, which members are, located in different countries face cultural differences that can affect the overall success of the groups performance. It includes language barrier and different culture understanding. According to (Smith, 2001) National differences tend to align themselves with the intrinsic cultural influences of the nationalities of the persons within the group. Most nations prescribe either to an individualism or collectivism identity. By cultural differences between geographic regions, team members cannot communicate through face-to-face. Therefore, important tonal and body language cues were missing. For example, some body language sign would have different meanings in different country or culture. For that reason, miscommunication is sometimes unavoidable. It has a negative effect on relationships and communication between team members. Furthermore, no matter in what culture we find ourselves communicating, the task is to grasp, through noticeable and invisible clues, others intentions behind their encoded signs. All cultures have classification systems of value, and competent management communicators need to be sensitive to the distinctive gradations of other’s classification systems. As Van Gennep has pointed out, â€Å"every ordered society necessarily classes not only its human members, but also the objects and creatures of nature, sometimes according to their external form, sometimes according to their dominant psychic characteristics, sometimes according to their utility as food, in agriculture or in industry, or for the producer or consumer. Nothing entitles us to regard any one system of classification, say the zoological system of totemism, the cosmographic system, or the occupational system (castes) as prior to the others. † (qtd. in L_vi-Strauss 162) 11. Lack of trust Trust is the belief that somebody/something is good, sincere, honest, and will not try to harm or trick you. Lacking of trust in communication among employees would lead to miscommunication in an organization. Depend on the different kind of an organization; there are different ways, different channels to employees to communicate. Therefore, there are many different way to building trust among employees. In each transmission channels of communication, there are different advantages and disadvantage. According to The Media Richness theory by Daft et al. (1987) suggests that computer-based communication media may eliminate the type of communication cues that persons use to express trust, warmth, politeness, and other interpersonal affections. So that employees are difficult to building trust with other. In other hand, according to the SIDE theory discussed by Walther (1997) contends that electronic media communication is no different than face-to-face interaction in terms of social information exchange. Furthermore, we can see that in an organization, if the management do not trust the employees, then they do not believe all of the thing that employees report. So the manager will have to double check all the work, which leading to time consuming. In the other hand, if employees lack trust in manager, they will start questioning all of the decision or opinions of the manager. These lead to communication breakdown and ineffective in productivity of the organization. 12. Negative effect of miscommunication to productivity As communication is defined as a process of transmitting, sharing information, ideas, knowledge, and understanding among peoples. So, miscommunication means that misunderstanding and people cannot achieving common goal. The problems caused by miscommunication can be critical even for the peace of the World. According to Huffington Post in 2010, even NATO in Afghanistan has been blamed miscommunication in the fire incident. In organizations, managerial communication with its methods and levels of communication are in a key role achieve people act and perform as the organization needs. Miscommunication can take place in everyday life and easily corrected by a new communication. But the bigger the communicated issue is, and the more it cause needs of change in people’s behavior, the more important is to avoid miscommunication. The time used to correct all serious misunderstanding can be vital for the time reaching the assigned target. We can have a look back into the case of Toyota. Toyota has issued some recalls ranging from floor mats to faulty accelerator pedals to rusted out spare-tire carriers. According to their former Chief American Spokesman Jim Olson, the core of the issue was miscommunication. Furthermore, Jim Olson said: â€Å"there was a clear division between Toyotas decision making and execution teams. † Jim argues that this slowed the company down and prevented communication and planning within Toyota. The results were obviously not only devastating to the family members of those hurt or killed in accidents caused by these problems but also devastating effect on the future business and reputation of Toyota. Miscommunication can take place at anytime, anywhere, in any organization, from business company to a public hospital or from a factory to the government. For example, in a hospital doctor team is diagnosing for a patient, if miscommunication occurs among the doctor team, it not only added stress and confusion, on top of an already delicate situation. One Doctor would give his diagnosis and then the other Doctor would give a completely opposite diagnosis. It was as if the two doctors did not come together to discuss and compare notes. This miscommunication led to confusion and eventually if the patient being in critical condition, resulted would be far more worse. Good communication is the backbone of any organization. As an organization grows bigger and becomes more complex, there is more opportunity for miscommunication to spread within. It can have a damaging effect on not only an organization but also external world. So we all know that miscommunication in an organization not only affect the productivity of the organization or time-consuming to correct the failure but also have vital effect on outside the organization. 3. How to reduce negative effects of miscommunication There are many disadvantage of miscommunication, but there are also many way to prevent miscommunication in an organization. Most of miscommunication in organization comes from personal miscommunication among members of the organization. In order to reduce personal miscommunications, missed expectations, frustration, confusion, disappointment , anger, and many other emotions by doing some of the following things in mind when we are attempting to communicate. Firstly, if you want to have an easy, clear, ommunication, you should choose your words carefully; try to use not complicated words or those words that have so many different meanings. Secondly, make certain your body language and facial expressions are matching with your message. If a manager tells his/her team they did a good job and he/her rolls the eyes as saying it, they are going to believe that facial expression rather than the words. They will believe what they see every time over what they hear. Furthermore, people in an organization should give trust to others. Trust is the foundation stone when dealing with people. When trust exists in an organization or in a relationship, almost everything else is easier and more comfortable to achieve. Try to keep promises. If you cannot keep one, explain what is happening in the situation without delay. Feedback is communication to a person regarding the effect their behavior is having on others. You need to find a way to share concerns without making the person you are talking to feel threatened. Finally, if miscommunication occurs, try to solve the problem as soon as possible to prevent further damages. 14. Conclusion Communication is an important role in any organization. And communication process is a process, in which the message is encoded by sender then sent through many different channel to receiver. However, during all of stages of communication process, many factors can occur and affect to the message, which lead to miscommunication. As far as we know, most of reasons of miscommunication in an organization leading to communication breakdown and further is ineffective productivity. Most of the reasons leading to miscommunication in an organization are from personal miscommunication among employees or member of the organization. It could be miscommunication because of perception or information overload, or because of noise or the way people chosen to communicate, or different in culture or, lacking of trust between employers or employees and management, which lead to employees not willing to cooperate or participate. Furthermore, we know that an organization structure is a reason leading to miscommunication. Different organization structure has different weakness, such as a tall organization generally have too many vertical communication links, which the message would be modified, change, or lost during the process. Communication has a vital affect to the organization especially the organization productivity. If an organization have a good communication process among employees, the process of sharing ideas, information, knowledge and opinions is faster, more accurate, It not only lead to effective productivity, saving more time and resource of the organization but also reduce the chance of vital negative activities. However, if an organization have problems in communication process among people, which lead to miscommunication and ineffective productivity or more critical failure. The negative effects of miscommunication not only have an effect on an organization itself but also the outside world such as customers or other organization. Finally, miscommunication in an organization is unavoidable, but the organization must know what to do to reduce the chance of miscommunication as well as it negative effects. Reference Miscommunication in workplace, Sources, Prevention, Response- David Snowball December 1, 2011 How to avoid miscommunication- Rex C. 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